Mary Anderson - Inventor of Windscreen Wipers


Mary Anderson was born February 19, 1866, who was an American real estate developer and she was widely recognized for being the woman who invented the windshield wiper blade. This device was created due to her visit to New York and invented a swinging arm that the driver would control from inside the car using a lever. This set the path for many more female inventors to take this invention and explore the idea more as we then had the first female woman who created the automatic windshield wiper in 1917 named Charlotte Bridgwood.
This was something that grew as more females invented things that the vast majority of us use today. Examples include:

Dishwasher

Josephine Cochran

1872

Life raft

Maria Beaseley

1882

Chocolate-chip cookies

Ruth Wakefield

1930

These are just some of the things that women have invented, read more on http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0906931.html



                                                             

                         Victoria Woodhall - First Woman Who Ran for President.

She was born in 1838 in Homer, Ohio - she became the first woman to run for becoming the 19th President. She was nominated as a third-party candidate who ran against the 18th President, Ulysses S. Grant. Females would not have the right to vote until 50 years later, she did not stop this getting in the way of her determination for change. We can see this in one of her quotes: "I and others of my sex find ourselves controlled by a form of government in the inauguration of which we had no voice."

With this historic act, she allowed many other females to run for President for America with some becoming closer to gaining the title than others. Many can include Hillary Clinton, Belva Ann Lockwood and more. Woodhall's act not allowed women to also have the courage and ability to run for president but also different vectors amongst politics. Margret Chase Smith represented Maine for 36 years in Congress, Lenora Fulani who ran for president in 1988 and 1992 and many others who were affiliated with politics.
We can still see the effects this stand has made in the 21st century as we have powerful females leading nations such as Former Priminister Margaret Thatcher and current Priminster Theresa May, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo - President of the Phillipeans.

This has helped the views of many as more females are becoming more open about the jobs they are getting into. Many have come as Housewives and turned into businesswomen and CEO's of major corporations all through the inspiration of Woodhall. Her stand was seen as iconic and she was viewed highly amongst the suffragettes

Sources:

http://www.women-inventors.com/Mary-Anderson.asp
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rebecca-bohanan/12-women-who-ran-for-pres_b_11172668.html
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jul/20/notorious-victoria-first-woman-run-for-us-president
https://www.nwhm.org/education-resources/resources/women-who-have-run-for-president
http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0906931.html

Spies in civil war and Sacajawea

Spies in civil war

During the American civil war, women were used as spies as they were seen as innocent and non-threatening. During the war the women spies would stay on their home farm or in a military camp and then report on information they collected from being around the military men. This could have helped American women as they were trusted with carrying out the task of giving information. Slowly both sides of the war realised the value of the women operatives. The harsh conditions they had to endure to only increased with higher suspicion on the spies, meaning that it became harder for them to obtain information. 

Sacajawea 

Sacajawea was a Native American women who helped Lewis and Clark on their discovery expedition in 1805-06. She helped on the expedition with navigation, communications, as she spoke two different languages, and helped when they encountered native Americans and helped settle disputes that could of occurred otherwise. This helped women, especially the native American woman, as she demonstrated that the native American woman and all women in general can be intelligent and defied the stigma against women just being seen as pretty and as a housewife. 

Sources;

https://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/spies/8.htm 

http://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/sacagawea 

Influential Events/Figures in Women's U.S. History

Marilyn Monroe:

Marilyn Monroe was arguably one of the most famous women of the 20th Century, and certainly the most famous in the entertainment industry. In the relatively short span of fifteen years, Monroe was a part of thirty films, before dying due to mysterious circumstances. She was an icon of the film industry, arguably proving that women could be just as big stars on the silver screen as men could, making half of the films that John Wayne was a part of in a much shorter time frame. Monroe would also be named the 'World Film Favourite' at the 1962 Golden Globe Awards, cementing her status as an icon of the industry. As well as proving further that women could easily do what men could do, Marilyn Monroe also defied the stereotypical image of a Hollywood woman; where most of her compatriots were thin to the point of anorexia and layered in makeup, Monroe was curvaceous and did little in the way of makeup, showing that women could defy the stereotype and still be beautiful. Marilyn has even been cited numerous times as one of the most beautiful women in history, an outstanding legacy to have.

   Female Representation in Politics:

Despite women gaining the right to vote with the 19th Amendment, they still had virtually no presence in national politics. Most women arguably relied on the First Lady of whichever President it was at the time to make their voices and concerns heard in Congress. However, during the 20th Century, this gradually changed. Eleanor Roosevelt, wife and First Lady to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, became a seasoned politician during her tenure, often touring the slums of American cities to try and figure out how to improve them, and she was also the director of the Bureau of Women's Activities in the Democratic Party, cementing herself as one of the most powerful women in national politics. Eleanor Roosevelt arguably kick-started the trend of First Ladies being as powerful as the men they were married too, with such examples as Jackie Kennedy, who brought grace and humility to the role of First Lady, Hillary Clinton, who was an advocate of a free national healthcare system during the presidency of her husband Bill Clinton, and especially Michelle Obama, who was a champion of women's rights, black rights and children's rights during her time as the first black First Lady in history.


Sources
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3712.html
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1590.html

19th Amendment and Women and Sport

19th Amendment

The 19th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified August 18th 1920 and was responsible for giving women the right to vote. The amendment itself states 'The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.' This meant that both states and the federal government could not stop people from voting because of their gender. This was common throughout US history as women were not viewed as equal and worthy of the vote due to a perceived lack of education or understanding of politics.

This was a key moment in women's history s it gave women equal political stature to men for the first time in federal law. It meant that women had a proper voice in politics now and were not being restricted based on gender. The amendment came after 72 years of hard work, the movement for women's rights began on a national level in 1848. This was with the Seneca Falls Convention organised by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Following the convention, suffrage became a cornerstone of the movement as a key goal to work towards. Women's rights activists such as Stanton, Mott and Susan B. Anthony worked and campaigned hard to earn the vote for women as well as helping to establish several women's rights groups.

However, while the 19th Amendment is often viewed as the most significant event in the advancement of women's rights, it did not have an immediate positive impact for all women. It did not mean that all women could now vote. For example, African American women could not vote as they were often stopped based on skin colour as opposed to gender. This suggests that its immediate impact only really was positive for white women. However, following the civil rights movement, it meant hat all women could vote and many took this opportunity. It paved the way for political equality for women, allowing them to have a say and influence politics directly.

Women and Sport

Women have been involved in organised sport in the US since the late 19th century. A key early invention was the bicycle. It was argued that the bicycle symbolised the quintessential 'New Woman' in the late 19th century which were self-reliant, athletic, strong and looking for a marriage based on equality. This activity led to organised sport for women which began really at the collegiate level with a number of Eastern women's universities offering sports programmes. The first intercollegiate women's basketball game took place between the University of California and Stanford on April 4 1896.

However, it was not easy for women to participate and numbers were low, it was still opposed by many who argued that sport was unfeminine. This became the prominent view throughout the 1930s around the great depression when ideas of the 'woman's role' were strong. Participation in sport did not completely stop for women and sport carried on. Up until this time sport had been limited to elite white women but the creation of business amateur leagues gave working class women the opportunity to participate in sport. These leagues were taken very seriously and businesses wanted their teams to do well. Dallas based Employers Casualty Company hired Mildred 'Babe' Didrickson as a clerical worker in 1930 essentially so that she could play for the companies basketball team which she led to a national championship.

In terms of African American women, they had more opportunities to compete in sport, particularly at the collegiate level. In 1939, only 25% of African American universities objected to intercollegiate sport for women as opposed to 83% of predominantly white universities. This led to greater opportunities in sport for African American women but they would not compete against white universities.

In 1972, congress enacted Title IX of the Education Amendments. This prohibits sex discrimination in education and programmes that receive federal funding. This meant that women could no longer be denied access to sport in high school based on gender. This increased greatly the opportunities that women had in playing sport at all levels. According to a University of Michigan study, Title IX resulted in a 20% increase in female attainment of education, 10% increase in number of women working full time and a 12% spike in the number of women male dominated fields. Leading to Nancy Hogshead-Makar's quote, 'other than women's suffrage, possibly no other piece of legislation has had a greater effect on women's lives than Title IX.'

Today, women in sport are still making progress. This can be seen through Shannon Szabados, a female ice hockey player who has been the first female player to take part in a number of leagues and tournaments.

Sources

https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxix
http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/19th-amendment
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/exhibit/game-changers/gRJ3eKVt

Amelia Earhart and 'Hidden Figures'

Amelia Earhart:

Born in Kansas, in 1897, Amelia Earhart was only the 16th woman to be issued with a pilot's licence and the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean, in 1932. She was a popular figure until her disappearance in 1937, while on a flight.
As Candice Fleming mentions in her account of Earhart's life and disappearance, 'Amelia Lost: The Life and Disappearance of Amelia Earhart', Amelia Earhart was a celebrity up until her disappearance in 1937, with an image to maintain. During the 1920s and 1930s, the only prominent female celebrities tended to be actresses or singers. What made Earhart unique, was that she rose to fame in an 'unfeminine' occupation usually dominated by men. In addition, her celebrity status, meant that unlike many women at the time, she had a distinct image and expectation to maintain, meaning she also had something valuable to lose, should she fail to do so. This is important in the  improvement of women's status in the U.S., because Earhart hadn't simply settled down into the profitless role of a wife, mother or 'angel of the house'. Earhart followed her passion, rather than conforming to what was expected of women. This is a crucial factor as to why she has been idolised by so many women throughout many women's rights movements, as she inspired women to try and become whatever they wanted, just like she had done.
Earhart's life growing up is also something that can be viewed as somewhat inspirational as well. She spent a lot of her youth without a strong male figure, as her father was an alcoholic, who never managed to maintain sobriety so he could provide for his family. This may have been a key factor as to why Earhart did succeed, as she didn't have a man telling her she couldn't do what she wanted to do with her life.
Overall Amelia Earhart was an inspirational figure in the improvement of women's status in the U.S. and remains to this day, important in the development of tolerance towards women in male dominated work places.

'Hidden Figures':

'Hidden Figures' is a 2016 biographical/drama film, focusing on three female African American mathematicians who worked for NASA. Set in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the events of 'Hidden Figures' largely surround Alan Shepard's 1961 spaceflight, which was the first time the USA had successfully put a man in space. Each of the mathematicians, Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan and Mary Jackson, played their own important part in this event in American history and in the progression of African American women's rights in NASA. 

From the start of the film, the audience is made aware of the obvious racial prejudices that there were at the time towards African Americans. An early scene in the film depicts a police officer pulling up next to the mathematicians' car and needing to thoroughly check their identification when they revealed they, three African American women, worked for NASA, which at the time was seen as a pioneering organisation that represented the future of America. There are constant other racial references in the film, especially regarding segregation. However, despite race being a topic in the film, gender is also very relevant. 

Dorothy Vaughan often has an awkward relationship with Kirten Dunst's fictional character, Vivian Mitchell, a white woman, who is supposed to represent the common feelings of most white women towards the African American department at NASA in this period. She occupies a higher role than Dorothy and whenever Dorothy needs something, she has to speak to Vivian. It is this relationship that highlights the hardship faced by women at this time. Vivian repeatedly denies Dorothy almost all of her requests throughout the film, despite not displaying any true discriminatory feelings. This highlights that fact that although she is in a better position than most of the African American employees, she does not have a large amount of influence in NASA, which of course was dominated by men in the most important positions.

One of the most progressive elements to this film and the historical event, is to do with Katherine Johnson. In 1956, Johnson's husband died of a brain tumour, leaving her and her three children and elderly mother to survive by themselves. This would have been difficult for a white woman at this time, so for a black woman to be able to maintain a job, while taking care of her family, is an enormous achievement. She remarried in 1959, but the film takes a lot of time to portray her life in the aftermath of her husband's death, and she is depicted as a strong independent woman, who would have been an inspiration to those around her, as would her two colleagues, Vaughan and Jackson. 

Lastly, it is important to note that this film was a critical and box office success, highlighting the contrast with the era in which the film was set and today's society. According to IMDB, the film had a budget of $25 million dollars and as of 24th March, 2017, had grossed $167,046,872 in the U.S. alone. In addition, out of over 66,000 reviews, IMDB had given the film a 7.9/10 rating, which suggests generally favourable reviews. 'Hidden Figures' score on Rotten Tomatoes also implies that critics and the public enjoyed the film with 93% of critics writing positive reviews for it, out of 228 reviews. It also has a 93% 'liked it' score from over 48,000 reviews from the public. The point here, is that there is obviously a lot of contemporary support for this film and the story it tells. Personally, I had not heard of these women, and their roles in the space race. Furthermore, when researching this as a topic to discuss, a lot of the material available, had only been published in more recent years, suggesting they truly were 'Hidden Figures' and this film was really needed to inform people of their important role in American history and the improvement of the status of women, as well as African Americans.

References:

http://www.biography.com/people/amelia-earhart-9283280
Fleming, C., Amelia Lost: The Life and Disappearance of Amelia Earhart, (New York, 2011).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_official_poster_for_the_film_Hidden_Figures,_2016.jpg
https://www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4846340/
https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/hidden_figures/

Two aspects that helped the position of American women.

The Right to Vote (1920)

One of the most monumental gains that improved the status of American women, was the campaigning of and gaining the right to vote. The right to vote is fundamental to any American. From the roots of American democracy, it was campaigned that it was their Constitutional right.

In context, the first gathering for the campaign for women’s rights was 19^th-20^th July 1848, Seneca Falls, New York. Around 100 people attended this small gathering. What was important about this was how Elizabeth Cady Stanton, an ordinary American mother, had drafted the “Declaration of Sentiments, Grievances and Resolutions”. Within this, she  highlighted the original Constitution, and the line of “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal”. From this, we can identify how the movement gained a lot of their foundations from the American Constitution, to help their cause.

The suffrage movement progressed from this meeting. Stanton and Susan B. Anthony created the National Women’s Suffrage Association (NWSA) aimed at changing Federal Law and opposing the 15^th Amendment; which was not inclusive for women. This was an Association that remained at the forefront of the suffrage movement, alongside the American Women’s Suffrage Association (AWSA).

From the 1880-90s there was a turning point and a surge of ‘volunteerism’. The movement began to gain more supporters and caught the attention from trade unionists, Christian unions and National Leagues.

After further struggle that followed through the 19^th and 20^th Centuries, the women’s right to vote was granted in 1920. This was a huge improvement for the political status of women. This is because they had a permanent place in society, where they could voice their political opinions outside of the household.

Marital Rape Law

A further aspect that helped improve the socio-political position of women, was the changes within marital rights in the late 20^th Century. Prior to 1993, it was not a crime if you were raped within a marriage. This was to protect women who were victims of domestic violence. In 1993, this was identified in at least 1 section of the sexual offences codes in all 50 states.

However, what proved controversial about this improvement was how some states later edited it. By 1996, about 16 states had completely repealed, and a further 33 states had partially repealed it.

Therefore, while this was an improvement in the social position of women, and gave them the legislation to take a legal stand against this form of domestic violence; it did face backlash and changes later.

Sources:

http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/WIC/Historical-Essays/No-Lady/Womens-Rights/

http://www.marieclaire.com/politics/news/a10569/things-women-couldnt-do-1920/

https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=201457

The legacy of Black Power Visual Culture in 1990s Hip Hop

I chose this article as I was intrigued by the posts we did last week, and I wanted to learn more about how African Americans influenced music, about black power and how this affects the representation of African Americans today. 

This article focuses on hip-hop music from the 1990s, highlighting the treatment of African Americans at the time. It goes into detail how 1990s African American hip-hop artists went into detail about political issues such as police brutality, racism, and many other difficulties African Americans had to face. I found this to be interesting as music is a great way to get a message across, especially if a song gets popular, it is heard by the masses and so is an interesting way of getting political issues across, which is what many of the 1990s hip-hop artist have done. An example used in the article was N.W.A's 'fuck the police', showing quite how obvious they were being about the political happening of African Americans. Of course, hip-hop is seen as violent and explicit due to it's harsh words and style, which just adds to the awful stereotype against African Americans. 

The article then goes onto the use of black power used in this style of music music. it shows different covers to albums or songs that show black power and black panther symbolism from the 1960s. There's is an example of Boogie Down Productions (BDP) cover for their second album being influenced by a Malcom X political poster, 'by any means necessary'. This shows how far American American went to promoting black power, and bringing back the black panther power from the 1960s through the use of 1990s hip hop. Many hip hop artists of the 1990s promote the use of self defence, and the use of BDP's album cover shows this. The article then goes on to talk about Public Enemy, who in videos used the berets, gloves and jackets similar to that the black panthers used to wear, bringing the idea of black power to the forefront, and updating the image of black panthers and black power and that they can be heard.

article:j
http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-legacy-of-black-power-visual-culture-in-1990s-hip-hop/

MEDIA COVERAGE AND THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION

This piece by Alfred Cardone talks about the way Americans receive media and how the Presidential Election had been covered.  Cardone explains just how the election and outcome had affected the American populaces. With the Internet - there are different ways that people can view media such as blogs or on YouTube. Both of these and many more other media platforms allow people to speak their minds about concerns they have. The concerns that the people have with their President allow them to find sources and forms which allow them to come together for support. However, those who are for President Trump are also able to find comfort in media outlets that allow them to feel safe from the hostility of their views from the opposing party. 

Cardone talks about the context in which different media platforms are being perceived fully as he also speaks about the way Alternative media is challenging the more traditional outlets that are controlled by corporate sources. In today's society, Americans are gathering more information from sources that self-funded or from memberships. This could be due to the effect that technology plays in society and what it can offer. Cardone talks about Chomsky and Hermann's: Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media  Which talks about the way different corporates have power which helps form public opinion. Cardone states in this article that it can be seen in a way that makes their argument seem out of date as since then, the corporate has no longer got full control over the flow of information that is being released. The 2016 election has shown that diversity may not always follow through with accuracy but as Americans are picking which media outlets they want to rely on many are wondering if they're being indulged in something for 'greater viewing and funding'

Cardone follows on to talk about the Election and how the different parties responded to the way the news was being covered. 
Trump's statement was "The press has become so dishonest that if we don’t talk about it, we are doing a tremendous disservice to the American People" However, instead of questioning 'the press' his administration seemed to be doing the same thing from a different point of view.
Trump also goes on to state that 'the leaks are real' but 'the news is fake' set a guide to be considered in subsequent similar circumstances, it makes it hard for Americans to understand what really is 'fake news' around them. The idea of it being fake news can be used as a way to see just how much corporates have lost the flow of information that is being released, even in regards to Trump's 'Leaks are real' which was targeted towards Hilary Clinton proved that media outlets can prove to be destructive. 
With the election, we saw disinformation spread in regards to the protests at the Democratic Nevada Convention with many of Hillary Clinton's surrogates stating that many of Bernie supporters had turned violent. This was indeed false news and this was used in an attempt to sabotage Bernie Sanders campaign.

I believe that this was important as well as interesting due to the approach Cardone had on this angle. The idea of 'Fake News' put into perspective if media platforms are giving out facts and true information instead of false statements which can be seen through the different candidate parties. 


Sources: 
http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/media-coverage-and-the-presidential-election-of-2016-introducing-the-series/
http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/03/20/trump-russia-story-is-fake-news-and-everyone-knows-it.html

‘The Forgotten LGBT Pioneers’

‘The Forgotten LGBT Pioneers of 1956’

By Simon Hall

This article focusses on the hidden underlying work of people who tried to ‘integrate homosexuals into society’. This work focusses heavily on the monthly magazine ‘The Ladder’, the ‘official’ monthly magazine of the ‘Daughters of Bilitis’ organisation. The Daughters of Bilitis were the first lesbian rights organisation in America.

Within the article, the Daughters of Bilitis were suggested to have been a positive influence in American society. They aimed to “educate the public and challenge ‘erroneous conceptions, taboos and prejudices’ about homosexuality”.[1] They were not particularly radical, as they reflected on how their behaviour could help integrate them into society. They heavily focussed on “middle class respectability and integration”.[2] Therefore, when they released their magazine the Ladder, it appeared particularly risky at the time.

The first edition of the magazine included features such as ‘What Are You Afraid Of?’ and the ‘President’s message’.[3] These included a debate on lesbian’s fears, as well as encouraging homosexuals so have the same determination as seen in other female pioneers.[4]

This article is an important piece of work, primarily because of the topic that it surrounds. It can sometimes be seen that the early history of the struggle for homosexual rights, has almost been forgotten. As early as 1924, early initiatives included pamphlets including ‘Friendship and Freedom’ by Henry Gerber, Chicago.[5] In addition, the firs gay rights organisation was founded in 1950 by activist Harry Hay.[6] This was set up to “eliminate discrimination, derision, prejudice and bigotry”.[7] Moreover, within America, homosexuals have faced a lot of discrimination in their own history. For example, President Eisenhower had signed the executive order in 1950, ‘banning homosexuals from working for the federal government’.[8] 

Today, the LGBT community and their campaigning for equal rights is widely known. From this, there has emerged charities such as the LGBT Foundation. Advocating for the equal rights and opportunities for Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals and Transgenders, this is an inclusive charity that seeks to ensure that the voices of the LGBT community are heard and that their needs are met.

Therefore, it is understandable as to why both this article and the LGBT movement are so important. In recent history, we have seen some of the biggest milestones, such as the equal marriage in the United States. However, we have also witnessed some of the biggest tragedies surrounding the LGBT community, such as the Orlando shooting. LGBT rights is still an ongoing movement globally, and their influence is so widely spread both within America and the world.

Sources:

https://lgbt.foundation/about/

http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

---

[1] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[2] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[3] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[4] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[5] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

[6] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

[7] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

[8] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

USSO: Indian Affairs Under the Obama Administration – An End to Broken Promises?

This article was published on November 7 2016 and is authored by Reetta Humalajoki, an early career researcher who teaches American History at Durham University and Newcastle University. The article was written following the eighth Annual White House Tribal Nations Conference. It reflects upon relations between the federal government and Native Americans under the Obama administration. It asks questions of whether the Obama administration was successful in greatly improving American Indian relations, an issue still relevant with the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline.

In some ways it can be seen that the Obama administration had been successful in reimagining American Indian relations as is pointed out by the article. First of all, the White House released an action plan named 'An All-of-Government Approach to Serving Indian Country' which was a 38 point plan which included past successes of the administration plus further commitments they are willing to make. The article focusses on the commitments towards Native youth opportunities and health and environment.

The article goes on to discuss the issues surround domestic violence and rape which have become a major issue for Native women on reservations. It was argued in the early Obama years that the administration was not doing enough for native women and the article suggests that the 2013 Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act was successful in dealing with some of these issues. Furthermore, the administration signed an Apology to Native People of the United States into law. However, this was not without its controversies. As the article states It was signed in as part of a bigger law and, as a result, did not gain much attention.

The article also explains other problems faced by the Obama administration. It claims that some of the acts put in place have in fact eroded some Native rights by getting rid of older acts from previous governments. Furthermore the article points out that these policies towards the Natives are not revolutionary as they build on similar rhetoric from the 1970s. The penultimate issue that the article points out is that of media coverage and support. The administrations policies have not really been nationally known and broadcast meaning that they are not getting the support they perhaps deserve. Finally, the issue surrounding the Dakota Access Pipeline has been made clear. Obama called for a alt to construction while the Army Corps checked its safety and security, however, construction is alleged to have continued on private land.

Overall, the article is interesting in both subject matter and the way in which it presents it. It presents a number of arguments both in favour and against the Obama administration offering facts to support these arguments. The information is clear and can be seen to be educational and informative with regard to President Obama's Native policy.

Sources
Article -
http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/indian-affairs-under-the-obama-administration-an-end-to-broken-promises/

https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidblackmon/2017/03/20/a-new-controversy-rises-as-oil-begins-to-flow-through-dakota-access-pipeline/#470ae49023fc
https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2016/09/26/tribal-leaders-give-obama-high-marks-for-native-american-relations/

Endangered America: Processing the Threat of Annihilation

http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/hotcuspg-endangeredamerica/

This article, on the supposed threat to the American way of life, and the threat of total annihilation as well, is interesting to me because I feel like this threat has existed since before the advent of nuclear weapons. One could arguably say that Americans in the 1700s felt that their way of life at the time was under threat from the increasingly tyrannical motives and efforts of the British to relinquish their independence.

Despite this, the focus on the Cold War era is obvious, as the advent of nuclear weapons, as well as the constantly rising tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union, was at the forefront of people's minds, as a conflict between the two superpowers would likely have ended in total atomic annihilation. According to Jennifer O'Reilly, the author of the article, the two lecturers focussed on American civil religion in annihilation fantasies of Americans from the 1950s to the present day (Andrew Monteith, Indiana University), and the JFK's relationship with the media and the press' role in the resumption of nuclear weapons testing in 1962-1963 (Mark Eastwood, University of Nottingham). The depth and relevance of the article are both profound, especially considering the current POTUS. Americans seemed to have not forgotten about the presence of nuclear weapons in modern society, although it is not hard to see why. There are many dozens of films, and just as many games, that deal with a nuclear, or otherwise major threat to American society; such examples include Independence Day, Olympus Has Fallen and Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, to name but a few. This kind of 'apocalypse narrative' was born during the era where death by nuclear fire was arguably at its highest, but it would seem that that narrative just hasn't gone away. If anything it seems to be more popular now than it has ever been before, and perhaps that is evidence of the way American society feels about the threat of annihilation. This is evidenced by the use of the USA Today poll where 78% of Americans said that they felt their way of life was under at least some degree of threat.

Overall, I think this article is concise and delves into how Americans portray and view themselves in a variety of ways. The exploration of threats to American society, both real and fictional, past and present, is profoundly relevant, considering the slowly rising tensions in today's politics, and I would have very much liked to have been a part of this conference.

Racialising "Muslims": Constructing A Muslim Archetype

Racializing “Muslims”: Constructing a Muslim Archetype

This piece, by Bradley J. Zopf (a Ph.D. candidate in Sociology at the University of Illinois at Chicago), discusses how Muslims have been subjected to discrimination and unfair treatment since 9/11. It is suggested that since 9/11, the distrust of people believing in Islam, which had existed prior to September 11th, has shifted from the suspicion of Islam, to the hatred of "Muslims as a people" and people who may 'appear Muslim'. This is an interesting and important article as it has parallels what is occurring with the Trump administration and how it intends to prevent people from certain countries (predominantly Middle-Eastern countries) from entering the US, as they supposedly pose the greatest threat to the US. Zopf discusses that due to the amount of coverage that 'Muslims' got in the wake of 9/11, they were perceived by the public as the enemy, and a certain archetype and phenotype of 'Muslims' have been established, leading to discrimination against them and misconceptions of what it is to be a Muslim. 

The literal definition of the term, 'Muslim', is "a follower of the religion of Islam". However, since 9/11, Zopf suggests that being a 'Muslim' in the public eye, has very different connotations from its original meaning. It no longer is to do with religion, but rather race, and how they have been racialized. This links with Trump's travel ban, as the countries he has targeted, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen, all have large Muslim populations, but they are not exclusively Islamic. Trump's travel ban has reignited the themes of 'us' vs 'them' that was prominent after 9/11, when the people of the US needed someone to blame for the tragedy of September 11th. However, post 9/11, this led to some extreme Islamophobia within the US and the western world, despite the fact that the culprits of the attacks on the US are not representative of the majority of Muslims, many of whom will argue that they were not true followers of Islam. In 2017, as a planet we seem to be more mature and know that Trumps ban posses more negatives than positives. Families are being threatened with being separated, with some members already living in the US and others intending to immigrate, but unsure of whether they'll be able to enter the country. 

Overall, Zopf's piece was interesting and very relevant, as it highlighted the changes in how the American public viewed 'Muslims' following the events of 9/11 and it is a subject that still has reparations today, with all that is occurring in contemporary global politics. 

References:

https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Muslim

http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/racializing-muslims-constructing-a-muslim-archetype/

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-39194875

http://www.politifact.com/wisconsin/statements/2017/feb/07/reince-priebus/were-7-nations-identified-donald-trumps-travel-ban/

Hamilton: the musical

Hamilton, written by Lin-Manuel Miranda, is a musical written about the founding father Alexander Hamilton. It retells the story of Alexander Hamilton's life through the use of contemporary music.

The reason why this is so significant to the portrayal of African Americans is due to the fact that most of the cast is made up of people of colour, even though the people portrayed would have been white. Lin-Manuel Miranda himself is the son of Puerto-Rican immigrants. This musical is an example of the assimilation of African Americans in society. The musical also shows a good portion of those who make up america now, and is especially important for African Americans and other people of colour, as many Broadway musicals aren't as diverse despite there being many African Americans settled in America.

All the songs in the musical are written in the style of hip-hop/r&b and rap, which African Americans were highly influential upon, and so this musical gives a modern twist to other musicals out there and with the diverse cast it stands out among other musicals, and highlights the culture of African Americans and how they also had an impact of america to how it is today.

The success of this musical will also help and encourage more people of colour to audition for roles like this and has helped them gain more confidence in showing that they are equal to white americans in being part of the history of america.

Separatism in 'Straight Outta Compton'

The 2013 film 'Straight Outta Compton' is a depiction of the rise to fame of the members of the band N.W.A (or Niggaz Wit Attitudes), Dr Dre, Ice Cube, Eazy-E, DJ Yella and MC Ren, as well as the difficulties the band, and each member individually, went through in order to achieve fame and fortune.

For starters, the film is set predominantly in the Compton area of Los Angeles, which as many know was infamous for the 1992 Los Angeles riots, which are seen in the film. In the 90s, Los Angeles had a significantly larger black population than many other American cities, and Compton had a large concentration of blacks living there, to the point where the term 'white flight' was coined to describe the amount of white people decided to leave for fear of their own safety. Police brutality and anti-law enforcement resentment among blacks was also common in this time, the presence of which probably helped some of N.W.A's tracks to become more popular. Crime was also prevalent in the area, with a high degree of murders (up to 49 per 100,000 between the 60s the late 90s) and crimes involving crack cocaine, which experienced a rise in popularity during the 80s, especially in black communities.

In the film itself, we see a lot of the struggles of being black in the tumultuous 90s. Many of the residents of Compton, the soon-to-be members of N.W.A included, struggle with money, finding jobs to make money, and relations with the local police. It is Ice Cube (played by his son O'Shea Jackson Jr.) who initially paves the way for N.W.A with his rap songs which drive home the realities of police brutality, crime and gang violence African Americans are exposed to. However, as the film goes on, and the N.W.A grow in popularity (or infamy, depending on which side of the fence you are on), the threats against them begin to grow too.

One of these threats comes in the form of effective censorship by the F.B.I. They demand that the song 'Fuk Da Police' be left out of their concert tour of 1989, as it provokes violence against law enforcement, even if the song itself is a result of police harassment against the members of N.W.A. Here, N.W.A refuses to bow down, and instead plays the song in their concerts. This is a major show of rebellion against the authorities, and definitely highlights the theme of separatism in this film; Dr Dre, Ice Cube and Eazy-E aren't going to assimilate with the rest of America, they're going to forge their own identity, controversial as it may be.

The theme of separatism is strong throughout the whole film, as despite the presence of the 1992 Los Angeles riots, police brutality and even the dissolution of N.W.A itself, the band members carry on forging their own identities and standing on their own two feet, saying what they will about society, and its inherent flaws and racism against blacks. The titanic amount of controversy surrounding the members of N.W.A, particularly Ice Cube due to his links with Nation of Islam and his violent temperament, all comes from their attempts to make a name for themselves, and this follows the ideals of Malcolm X, who advocated separatism, and to a degree, violence.

 

https://youtu.be/5KC_kFFmT2c

Representation of African Americans - The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air

'The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air'

'The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air' is an American sitcom that follows the lives of an African American family in Bel-Air California. It was broadcast in the 1990s and it is centred around the life of Will Smith (Will Smith), a teenager from Philadelphia who moves to California to live with his Aunt and Uncle. The Banks family is a wealthy one thanks to Uncle Phil's (James Avery) job as a lawyer. The show depicts two sides of African American life through the wealthy Banks family and Will with his poorer Philadelphia background.

The show is often described as significant in the portrayal of African Americans as it was the first TV show to focus on wealthy, African American protagonists as opposed to poorer characters from the ghetto or criminals. However, throughout the programme Will attempts to claim that the way in which his relatives act represents a 'lack of blackness' as it does not fit his ideas of what being African American is about, being from the city.

In general, the show offers ideas around assimilation as opposed to separatism. Uncle Phil works at a law firm where his partners a predominantly white. This suggests that Uncle Phil is happy and willing to work in a predominantly white profession in a firm with predominantly white colleagues, assimilation in the profession as opposed to separatism. Secondly, the Banks family live in a 'white neighbourhood.' This further shows ideas of assimilation as the African American family lives in a predominantly white community and a completely a part of that community and not outsiders.

Will, however, represents a different view of African Americans. Will represents a more common portrayal of African American life which many African Americans state they can relate to. He represents a poorer African American from the city, a more traditional Hollywood portrayal of African Americans. He is seen to struggle to adapt to the Bel-Air lifestyle as it is different to how he was raised. This difference in upbringing presents Will, in many cases, as an outcast. For example, the picture below depicts Will dressed differently to the rest of the Banks family, suggesting he does not quite fit in to this lifestyle.

Will, however, is able to find common ground with Uncle Phil in terms of the Civil Rights Movement and activism in the 1960s. Will is seen to be a fan of influential African American leaders from this time such as Malcolm X who is constantly referenced. Uncle Phil also states that he was present at several key Civil Rights events such as the march on Washington and present at Malcolm X's key speeches. \This allows two African American's with different views of the world to bond over a common history which they share and a proud of.

Sources
The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (1990-96)
http://www.iperstoria.it/vecchiosito/httpdocs//?p=237
https://storify.com/kperry0123/stereotypes-found-in-the-fresh-prince-of-bel-air

AMERICAN HISTORY X

AMERICAN HISTORY X

American History X is a movie that was released in 1998 which follows two brothers who become part of a neo-nazi movement. The movie is told with a nonlinear narrative.
The entire movie follows Separatism. We can see from the beginning how much segregation flows throughout the movie. The older brother, Derek becomes somewhat of a figurehead amongst these groups, rallying up other members. After being woken up by his younger brother who heard noises of people trying to break into his car, he went out and shot them both. His younger brother, Danny is following closely in his footsteps by shaving his head and even getting a tattoo of his group. At school, he turns in a paper about Adolf Hitler's Mien Kampf showing his views about his ideology. Through flashbacks, we see many different issues which affected the way the brothers think about things.

Through one of the flashbacks, we hear that their father has been shot/killed in a blazer, the news reporter gets a statement from the younger Derek who states: "Blacks, Browns, Yellows... it's race related" which essentially starts his journey on this rampage of hatred which is passed down to his brother. He also states that aging and immigration is not 'white problem' but problems for other communities which is something that can be related to separatism.

Danny is fully exposed to the idea of white supremacy through his surroundings. We see him enter his bedroom which is plastered with neo-nazi themed decors, such as a Nazi sign wall hanging and a plethora of Hitler posters and photos. This helped shape his views and rhetoric towards others that we're not white. This is also taken due to another flashback that we see of Derek gathering people to go and bust up the grocers. Danny is present through the whole of this which also influences his views. We also see him at the beginning when Derek shoots the two black men. We can see that Derek meant for them to die as it was not one bullet that he shot at either of them but it was repeated.

Another flashback we see is when the family was sat around the table and the father is speaking to Derek. Derek states how Sweeney is an incredible teacher who is very engaging and how he is the best. He follows up with saying about how they are reading a book about the natives as this is what their essay is on. The father challenges him on his views towards the book stating that white books we're not good enough as a joke to the teacher who believed to be superior due to this 2 PhDs. The father tells him that he needs to question the stuff he says as it is bullshit or 'negro bullshit'. Prior to this, he explains how he has two black men 'covering his back' (he works as a police officer) and they only got the job because they were black. They came lower than other white men and this was something the father was not happy with.

During Derek's time in prison, he came to terms with who he was and his views on life. We see a shot in which he is the only white person who is standing out. We also see him speaking to someone who he works with in the prison who refers to him as being the 'nigger' due to the fact that he was the only one standing out due to his skin complexion. He becomes friends with other people who are part of a neo-nazi group but after spending time in the prison and befriending the black person, he starts pulling away from them and after embarrassing them, they rape him for being a 'negro sympathizer' and becoming friends with them. It was only for his friend that he worked with that they never touched him again. We see this at the end when he is released that he has his back covered by the black man. We can see here where the issue amongst race is put to one side and they actually show respect towards one another. This ultimately sets what's to happen throughout the rest of the movie.
We see Derek making a better life for himself and his family and trying to make things right. The night before he sets out to take his brother to class, he saw a car watching his house with black guys inside who was tasked with killing Danny. The day he goes to class, he is ambushed by Little Henry who shoots Danny dead. The ending is a voice over which states: "Hate is baggage. Life's too short to be pissed off all the time. It's just not worth it" 


To finish, I believe that this showed great views on white supremacy and the hatred between white Americans and Afro-Americans. It goes to show that hatred is something that is taught therefore it can also be unlearned too as we can see some individuals from the movie, i.e. Derek showing this.

Sources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_A96zd-hps - speech 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vU9mI4fkiDo&t=1s - derek interview 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOzR5Jnd6bU&t=138s - fight 

Representation of African Americans in South Park: World War Zimmerman

South Park is a show that's content is always up to date with current affairs in the world. It's creators, Matt Stone and Trey Parker take immense pride in their '6 days to air policy', in which they write, record and produce each episode within a 6 day period prior to it's air date. This means it is always full of contemporary and relevant themes at which it can be satirical. It is also never shy to approach controversial topics and racism towards African Americans, is no exception. It is important to note that while South Park may seem controversial by using the innocence of it's youthful characters to promote offensive material, it always has a greater message.

In the episode, 'World War Zimmerman', which aired in the US on the 9th October 2013, the notoriously racist and ignorant 'Eric Cartman' is obsessed with the verdict of the George Zimmerman trial and fears that his classmate and one of the only black characters, 'Token Black', will seek revenge following the verdict.
The trial of George Zimmerman was held after the shooting of a 17 year old African American named Trayvon Martin, on February 26th 2012. Despite it being clear that Zimmerman had killed Martin, the State of Florida acquitted him of second degree murder and manslaughter, as it was deemed that he had the right to defend himself with lethal force. Throughout the episode, Cartman grows increasingly paranoid about the situation and thinks that if he doesn't act, there will be an uprising from all African Americans, who he assumes will stop at nothing to obtain 'justice' for the perceived injustice provided by the legal system.

Cartman's Dream
This clip shows the apocalyptic chaos that Cartman envisages when African Americans hear about the verdict (it is a play on the Brad Pitt film 'World War Z' which was released in June 2013). This reoccurring dream shows that Cartman knows the verdict will have upset some of the African American community (this was an early incident that sparked the 'Black Lives Matter' movement). However, due to his ignorance and idiocy, Cartman cannot comprehend that African Americans could react in a civilised manner, hence why they are portrayed as crazy 'zombie-like' figures. This hints at underlying racist ideologies that black people simply will not be as educated and as capable as white people, so would not have the ability to act rationally and sensibly when questioning the verdict. Cartman also assumes that it would be all African Americans who would retaliate against the verdict. However, the verdict simply highlighted laws in Florida which entitles anyone to 'stand your ground', when threatened. It is a Constitutional Right, under the 2nd Amendment in the USA to have the right to bear arms, so it is probable that some African Americans would not be able to dispute that Zimmerman's actions fell within his rights. Cartman only sees it as an 'us and them' scenario, with few blurred lines, highlighting themes of separatism within the context of the show.

This separatism perhaps peaks when Cartman singles out Token and the only other black student, Nicole, while performing a rap in front of the school. With lyrics such as, "black or white, it's alright, black or white, let's not fight", it is clear that Cartman's intentions are to prevent what his paranoia has led him to believe will be the African American uprising following the Zimmerman trial. Naturally, Token reacts angrily to being singled out purely because of his skin colour. This is something that Cartman fails to understand. The very action of trying to not be racist, resulted in being racist. To Cartman, Token's outburst is still the result of his anger at the Zimmerman verdict. Token makes the point that Cartman only feels bad because he's afraid that he will be victimised following the African American's supposed retaliation. This has connotations with slave owners and their fear that one day the slaves would unite and rebel against their 'owners'. Because of this, in slave-stricken America there were often rules on plantations which prevented male slaves from gathering in groups of more than three or four. This was to stop any conspiring between slaves, but also because male slaves were actually fed and looked after fairly well in order to maintain large workloads on the plantations. Slave owners worried that should they unite, the slaves could overpower them. This did occur in 1831, when Nat Turner and six other slaves launched an attack on plantations in Southampton County, Virginia. It proved to be one of the largest slave rebellions ever reported and is the type of event that Cartman fears.

Racist Police
This next clip displays South Park's stance on the trial. If Trayvon Martin had been white, Zimmerman would have been charged. It suggests that the police and legal system prioritise white peoples' lives more than African Americans'. In the episode, when it was thought that Zimmerman had again killed a black child, the military man and government official praised him and stated, "you did what you had to, you're a hero". But when it is revealed that this 'black child' was just Cartman dressed in camouflage, Zimmerman is found guilty, imprisoned and swiftly sentenced to death. This is a reference to a quote from Martin's father who, following the verdict, said that, "If Trayvon had been white, this would never had happened".  
Prior to the events of this clip, Cartman travels America in an attempt to raise awareness about the 'imminent' retaliation from African Americans. Fooled into thinking Cartman is referring to a genuine 'zombie apocalypse', Cartman gains a large following of white people, who are none the wiser to the truth, despite it being obvious ('the public' in South Park tend to be intentionally oblivious to the truth in order to highlight their hypocrisy in the real world). This links with the vendetta that South Park suggests the police have against African Americans. It is implied that 'the white majority' refuse to realise there is an issue with racism unless it is 'spoon fed' to them, by which time it may be too late. This concept links back to the Civil Rights Movement, where in the 1950s, in particular, white people often lived blissfully ignorant lives without realising anything was awry. In addition, the media would often not present all the facts when covering stories about African Americans, so some of the truth may have been hidden from the rest of the country.

Overall, this episode of South Park explores the USA's contemporary relationship with African Americans, while also comparing how they used to relate. The use of the Zimmerman trial and the film 'World War Z', is an excellent addition that brings comedy, as well as a relevant case study which justifies the show making an episode exploring these themes.


References:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b3IjFYh4zng
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jRfIz-dHV6A
http://www.today.com/news/dad-if-trayvon-had-been-white-wouldnt-have-happened-6C10671362
http://famous-trials.com/zimmerman1
http://famous-trials.com/zimmerman1/2293-zimmermanchrono
Young, H. Young, N., The 1950s, (Santa Barbara: 2004), p.9.
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-newnation/4574