Anti

The first thing that we can see is the slogan in the top right saying "stop importing poverty. -- Amnesty Euphemism" we are easily able to identify this with anti-immigration. 
The website is simply easy to navigate with everything that you need on the first page.

The language seen does come across to be quite hostile in the way they regard immigrants. This use of language singles out immigrants from others due to the way they are regarded. There are links to articles on the first page which have key things in them that they have placed above them. However, instead of viewing the article in giving balanced points, it claims all the negativity when saying things such as ""Immigration concerns surged in July, while economic mentions ebbed” or the referral to immigrants being 'aliens'.

Overall, I feel that the website did have some articles that really gave their stance on immigration but I feel that they could have included more information in regards to who they are and their organization. 


PRO

This page opens up with a statement that says "Latinos Progresdando delivers high-quality information and resources for people to build secure, healthy and productive lives." This is their mission which is forever ongoing as the website is there to offer support and help to families that are in difficult positions.
We see a slide show which we see runs and events taking place in order to help raise money for immigrants and create awareness for the issue. Any awards they have been given can be seen through the slide show too.

Now, not only (when you scroll down) is there a page for 'immigration legal services' but this website also offers programs on Arts and Culture and Community Development. This would help those with being able to fit into the community much securely.  
One of the articles we see is how the website has helped a woman who was struggling to get a green card. Afer bring denied one due to being filed prematurely, the latinospro.org stepped in to help file her adjustment for a resident status. 

When browsing around the website, we are able to see what the website has on offer. They promote walk-ins at their office as well as pages on how they help families, Legal education and a Domestic Violence program to help those in abusive situations. 

This website does it's best to show the world the positive idea of pro-latino-immigration with a generally more open mind in approaching the Latino/American relationship. However, this website does lack numerical facts and figures which I feel would sell the page to the reader.
Scrolling down, we see 'illegal aliens' being mentioned which is seen as a referral to the illegal immigrants in the US. It is fair to say that although they do not specifically target latinos, they are fully against immigration. 





http://www.nciraction.org/
http://latinospro.org/our-story/

Latino Immigration

Pro and Anti-Latino Immigration

Pro-Latino Immigration: The Chelsea Latino Immigrant Committee

An organisation that is pro Latino immigration to the United States, and seeks to help assimilate Latinos into American society, is the Chelsea Latino Immigrant Committee (CLIC).

This is a branch off the umbrella organisation ‘The Chelsea Collaborative’. Founded in 1988, they are dedicated to helping and improving the lives of Latino immigrants in Chelsea, MA. According to their website, their main ‘mission’ is to focus on ‘enhancing’ the economic, social and environmental health of the community and its citizens. They particularly advocate against exploitation in the workplace and seek to improve position of Latino immigrants.

Furthermore, they have had significant achievements that have developed the standard of living for Latino immigrants. Some of which have included:

-      Assimilating over 65% of families in the area into governmental systems; including schools and healthcare to name a few

-      Improving the education of children

-      Proving grants and benefits to local citizens, and helping them both to ‘stay in their homes and fight back against predatory loans’

Building on this, the organisation have also excelled at creating essential programmes to help Latino immigrants, and to support them in ordinary suburban life. A few have included:

-      The Chelsea Voter Initiative

-      The Chelsea Latino Immigrant Committee

-      The Chelsea Citywide Tenants Organisation

An important way to identity how the organisation really has helped Latino immigrants, is to reflect on its victories within the community. For example:

-      Winning thousands of dollars back for work exploitation and violations for those affected fraudulent crimes, because they were immigrants

-      Helping to ensure the community knows their rights as immigrants

-      Joined the Attorney’s fair wage campaign

-      Links with the Reform Employment Agency Law to (REAL) for protection for temporary and day labourers.

In summary, while this organisation and website is a focus group on the Chelsea are, they really are pro-Latino immigration and emphasise on equal rights. They may be a smaller organisation in comparison to others, however their campaigning on behalf of the Latino community has proved to be both influential and effective.

Anti-Latino Immigration: The Social Contract Press

Another website which suggests anti-Latino sentiment is the Social Contract Press (TSCP). It is a website that has online books and journal articles.

What suggests that it is anti-Latino immigration is from some of the potentially racist works that it has published previously. Some of which have included the reprint of ‘The Camp of the Saints’ (1973) about the end of Western Civilisation, and also the ‘Turner Diaries’ which hold connotations with white supremacy.

The editor John H. Tanton is the publisher for the Social Contract Press, and he is also the founder of the American Immigration Reform. This was an effort in 1996 to add an anti-immigration plank. He even suggested that “we are the real Americans”… “not the Hmong, not Latinos, not the Siberian-Americans”.[1]

Therefore, while many may see the 21^st Century as a progressive era, there are those who do not support the immigration of Latinos, or the assimilation of them into society.

Sources:

http://www.chelseacollab.org/who-we-are/programs/chelsea-latino-immigrant-committee

http://www.thesocialcontract.com/info/about_the_social_contract.html

https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2001/anti-immigration-groups

---

[1] https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2001/anti-immigration-groups

Latino Immigration

MALDEF

The Mexican American Legal Defence and Educational Fund is an organisation operating from four regional offices in Los Angeles, CA, San Antonio, TX, Chicago, IL and Washington D.C. It works to protect the rights of Latino immigrants throughout the US. It was founded in 1968 and is described as the nation's leading Latino legal civil rights organisation. The mission statement explains that MALDEF aims to promote social change through advocacy, communications, community education and litigation in the areas of education, employment, immigrant rights and political access.

There are a number of ways in which MALDEF aims to meet this mission statement. They try to implement programmes which bring Latinos into central American life, politically, socially and economically. They also aim to provide better educational opportunities for Latinos, encourage participation in all aspects of society and offer a positive vision for the future which Latinos can strive for and work towards. These are several ways in which they are able to improve the lives of Latino immigrants and help with the assimilation of Latinos into American life.

MALDEF has also been successful in its work in the US courts. They have fought a number of successful cases at all levels which have helped reinforce and maintain the rights of Latino immigrants. They fought and won two major supreme court cases. The first of which was Plyler v. Doe in 1982. This case saw MALDEF win a decision that struck down a state law in Texas that allowed districts to alter educational funding for children of undocumented immigrants. This victory opened up doors in terms of education for many immigrants and their children.

FAIR

The Federation for American Immigration Reform is an organisation that seeks to influence and gain support for immigration reform in the US. They are a non-profit, non-partisan organisation that believes that American immigration laws need to be reformed in order to better serve the needs of current and future generations of Americans. They have support from almost 50 private business and 1.3 million diverse members and supporters. They work for their supporters in the absence of party alliances or connections with special interest groups. They have been a leading force in advocating immigration reform for over 35, offering solutions and ideas on reform.

The mission statement of explains that FAIR aims to educate and increase public awareness of immigration issues, as well as offering solutions, holding politicians and leaders accountable and ensuring that the public's voice is heard. They wish to bring immigration in the US to a more reasonable level, wishing to reduce the number of legal immigration from 1 million a year to 300,000 a year while working to eliminate illegal immigration. They believe that this is best for America as it allows America to more sensibly manage its growth, address its environmental needs and provide  better quality of life for Americans. They achieve all of this by advocating and offering policies that they believe but American citizens first as opposed big business and special interest groups

Sources
https://maldef.org/
http://www.fairus.org/

US Border Control Concerns

https://www.wola.org/analysis/not-national-security-crisis-u-s-mexico-border-humanitarian-concerns-seen-el-paso/

This website, as a website advocating human rights across the world, naturally appears to be pro-immigration, and in this case, an entire report has been written out explaining in detail the Latin-American immigration issue, specifically Mexico, in this case.

The organisation that runs the website, WOLA, or the Washington Office in Latin America, was founded in 1974 by a series of church leaders, who's ulterior mission was, in their own words, "not to 'represent' Latin Americans but to give them access in the United States to those making the policies that had such a profound impact on their lives". Arguably, that mission is still going on today, but WOLA itself has changed. It is now "a leading research and advocacy organisation advancing human rights in Latin America", and one area it seems to be focussing on in this day and age is the ever-recurring topic of Latino immigration.

The report goes into great detail about the intricacies of Latino immigration, specifically in the area of El Paso. Many figures are provided as evidence for the report's reasoning, and a few of the most important figures are as follows:

• In 2016, 408,870 migrants were apprehended at the US border, showing a marked decrease in overall undocumented migration, to the point where undocumented migration levels are at a similar level to what they were in the 1970s.
• Furthering the above point, overall numbers of Mexican migrants have fallen to 1970s levels, and between 2004 and 2015, each subsequent year had fewer migrants than the year that preceded it.
• The violent crime rate at the border has decreased to the point where it is the lowest in the nation, and the crime rate on the Mexican side of the border has decreased similarly.

The report itself does its best to be non-biased, however by focussing on making the Mexican immigration issues not as bad as Americans think they are (which is true if the figures aren't lying), the report follows the trend of the rest of the website by promoting an idea of pro-Latino-immigration, and a generally more open, tolerant mind-set to approaching Latino/American relations. However, despite leaning more towards pro-immigration, the report, and the website as a whole, provide plenty of points, backed up with sources, for the upsides to increased immigration, making it an effective advocacy website.

http://www.cfr.org/immigration/us-immigration-debate/p11149

This article, in a not too dissimilar fashion to the WOLA report, attempts to remain as non-biased as possible, going into detail regarding the issues surrounding immigration, the history of the debate, and the many facts and figures which make up the US immigration debate.

The CFR, or Council on Foreign Relations, labels itself as an 'independent, nonpartisan membership organisation, think tank and publisher'. Like WOLA, the CFR (supposedly) has links with US politicians and other world leaders, and informing the public of national foreign policy. Formed in 1921, the CFR's diverse range of accomplishments, ranging from publishing Foreign Affairs, a leading journal of international policy and US foreign policy, to convening meetings with various high-level politicians from the US and across the globe to ensure important political matters are discussed and resolved.

The article goes on to talk about the issues presented by immigration, talking about the immigrant population, how the American public feels about immigration, legal or otherwise, and how various political figures and authorities have acted (or failed to act) on what the CFR presents to them. Such facts include:

• After the 2008 economic crisis, the undocumented population lessened from 11 million, and the crisis discouraged others from going into the United States.
• Immigrants and their US-born children make up around 27% of the population of the United States.
• In a 2016 Gallop poll, a surprising 72% of the American population found immigration to be a benefit to the United States, with 84% saying that undocumented immigrants could be let in if they meet certain requirements.

Although this article is almost completely non-biased, in my opinion it leans both pro and anti-immigration, seemingly favouring the anti-immigration stance. This is because it makes heavy reference to Trump and his nigh-radical policies regarding immigration, particularly Mexican immigration, and the article also suggests that something needs to be done about the current immigration situation, even going so far as to suggest a reform. This implies that CFR believes that immigration is getting out of control and needs to be limited, although not necessarily stopped.

Pro and Anti Latino Immigration

Pro Latino Immigration

The 'National Council of La Raza' is the USA's largest Latino advocacy, nonprofit group and was founded in 1968. This date is significant as it coincides with the stage of the African American Civil Rights movement, where young African Americans were encouraged to find out about their heritage and take pride in their cultural background. Along with the African American movement, there was also a lot of activity from other minority groups in the US, such as the East L.A. walkouts of 1968 (also known as the Chicano Blowouts), which were organised with the goals of bilingual bi-cultural education, with more Latino teachers, smaller class sizes and overall improvement of the quality of education available to Latino youths. With 1968 such an active year for Civil Rights, it is no surprise that the 'National Council of La Raza' was established in order to "create opportunities and open the door to the American Dream for Latino and other families".

This website is extremely easy to navigate and clearly identifies the issues with which it deals. The issues addressed include: 'Civil Rights & Criminal Justice', 'Economy', 'Education', 'Health', 'Immigration', 'Voting' and 'Youth'. It is most clear when reading the 'Immigration' section, that this website is not just for Latinos to use. There is a link entitled, 'what you should know when dealing with immigration enforcement officers', which suggests that the majority of readers may be Latinos worried about what to do if confronted by the border authorities. However, there are also areas that aim to inform outsiders on the positive implications of the immigration of Latinos, suggesting they expect people of all races and backgrounds to view their website. There is a section called, 'Seven ways immigrants enrich our economy and society', which does this. The use of 'our' in this title, highlights this websites views towards Latinos and assimilation into the US. They want Latinos to be viewed as a respected part of US society without any stereotypes or prejudice towards them. 

This website does an excellent job of discussing and assisting Latinos in the wider context of the USA. There is a link entitled, 'In USA Today', which is a news forum of the activities relating to Latinos in the USA. However, it does not only focus on Latinos, as they recognise the importance of assimilation into American society, without diminishing the heritage and history of Latinos. This is important as it suggests their goal is not entirely one sided, as it incorporates the needs of people crossing different races and backgrounds.

Anti Latino Immigration

The 'Minuteman Civil Defence Corps' does not state that it is 'anti Latino'. However, with features on its website, such as an 'illegal alien' counter, which supposedly shows the live numbers of illegal immigrants in the US, it is fair to say that it is not overly fond of Latino immigration to the US. They take their name from a colonial militia who were so named because they were said to always be ready 'at a minute's notice'. Immediately from viewing their introductory page, it is evident that this group attempt to get support through displaying their patriotism. Behind the image of an original Minuteman is a the US flag. The Minuteman appears as if he is protecting the flag, and it is important to note that this Minuteman is armed. Contrary to this depiction, the contemporary Minutemen do not, or at least do not disclose, the use of force when fulfilling their purpose. Indeed, their mission statement states that they will "employ all means of civil protest, demonstration, and political lobbying" in order to secure the US' borders and coastal boundaries against any illegal immigrants. The use of the gun with the original Minuteman, along with the barbed wire, probably highlights the groups limitations and perhaps the contrast of what they could want to be and what they are able to be in reality. It implies that back in the 'good ol' days' of the original Minutemen, it would have been much simpler to deal with issues such as unwanted immigration, as they would have been able to use force and not be questioned. However, in reality they are restricted by constitutional laws. It would be unwise for this group to break these laws, as they are supposed to be in favour of upholding immigration laws themselves, so it would be hypocritical to break other laws.

The language used on this website is often fairly aggressive and forced upon the reader. In their 'about us' section, which is at first difficult to find due to the basic and underdeveloped way in which the website has been set up, the reader's views are already decided for them  by the group. An example of this is when it says, "you are considering joining in this activist protest because you are done talking". There is practically an entire page with this type of language, which is incredibly hard to read without feeling patronised. However, for many middle to old aged Southern men, this patronising garbage is likely to be viewed as patriotic and as a rallying cry to join the Minutemen. The use of 'you', which is mentioned almost every other word on the page, gives the impression that it is up to the reader to act on the issues they mention. The general issues mentioned are that too many people are entering the US illegally and the Minutemen feel the government are focusing too heavily on endeavours abroad, so they do not have the resources to do so. As previously mentioned, this website is not explicitly hostile towards Latinos. However the fact that the majority of their issues surround the Southern border, they are evidently the 'illegal aliens' that they mention so often. 

References:

http://www.nclr.org/

http://www.minutemanhq.com/

http://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/east-los-angeles-students-walkout-educational-reform-east-la-blowouts-1968
https://www.nps.gov/mima/learn/education/who-were-the-minute-men.htm

Anti and Pro Latino immigration

Pro-Latino

Latinos Progresando was founded by Luis Gutierrez, who was just 24 and working as a volunteer. He is the son of Mexican immigrants and was born in the southwest Chicago's Little Village, one of the largest Mexican communities in the Midwest. This organisation is led by Latinos, and have an area focused on those immigrants suffering from domestic violence. Latinos Progresando strives to deliver "high quality information and resources for people to build secure, healthy, and productive lives."

This organisation have 3 principles which they stand by:

1) "An injustice to any community is an injustice to our community. Social justice comes from collaborating around diverse causes, even those that don't directly affect us."

This shows a wider range of support outside of Latino people, meaning that this can draw in more support from other races as they can get support as well, even though this organisation is mostly focused on immigrants in america.

2) "Every decision we make must be based on what is best for our communities, not just on what is best for our organization or any one individual."

This is similar to the first principle in the fact that they are focused on everyone and not just what is best for the organisation or a certain individual, meaning that this will appeal to more people. 

3) "We do everything the best we can, because helping our communities achieve excellence means using and attentively refining our best practices."

This shows that they will do whatever it takes help others in need, and not just have set rules or programs in place that are limited to certain people.

This organisation helps those immigrants in distress and gives support to all immigrants, including Latino immigrants, and look to give all immigrants the right information they need to make the best of their lives in America. 

Anti-Latino

Americans for immigrant control opens with the statement that they are a "American non-partisan grassroots activist organization" and that they are an organisation with "all races, creeds, and colors". They have a quarter of a million members, this showing that they have a lot of support and there could be emphasis that this is a widespread goal of a lot of Americans of all races, and that due to the amount of supporters, it will gain them more supporters.

AIC was founded in 1983, with it's aim of "stopping the millions of illegal aliens who sneak across our border from Mexico every year". This shows the views the people of this organisation and how strongly they feel about Latino immigrants crossing the border into america. They say that they want to deport "those illegal aliens already in the U.S." The referencing to the Latino immigrants as 'aliens' shows that they believe that these people are not human. This compares to language used against African Americans, as they were and sometimes still are refereed to as aliens.

AIC want to make it harder for illegal immigrant to get through the border and for them to have harder access to jobs, as they most likely feel that these immigrants are stealing their jobs, even though these immigrants will be getting the lowest paid jobs on offer.

Members of this organisation believe that this is an "immigration crisis", and want to alert as many people as possible to rally support for this cause, including going on radio talk shows and TV programs to "alert the nation". They also publish and give out letters, petitions, and postcard campaigns to "promote secure border control", showing how against this organisation is to Latino's.

Ragged Dick

Beauchamp discusses the success of Alger's Ragged Dick, and how after his success he writes many more books along the same theme as ragged dick: 'a poor but honest lad who, through grit, idunstry and some well deserved luck, pulls himself up from poverty and into middle class'.

John swansburg states that "industry, frugality, a penchant for self-improvement—which set him apart from the ne’er-do-wells and confidence men who populate his adventures in the streets of New York. But these attributes merely qualify the Alger hero for success; they don’t produce it."

Cara Erdheim talks of how “Alger traced the rise of his boy heroes from penury to middle-class respectability.”

                                                            
                                            Mary Anderson - Inventor of Windscreen Wipers


Mary Anderson was born February 19, 1866, who was an American real estate developer and she was widely recognized for being the woman who invented the windshield wiper blade. This device was created due to her visit to New York and invented a swinging arm that the driver would control from inside the car using a lever. This set the path for many more female inventors to take this invention and explore the idea more as we then had the first female woman who created the automatic windshield wiper in 1917 named Charlotte Bridgwood.
This was something that grew as more females invented things that the vast majority of us use today. Examples include:

Dishwasher

Josephine Cochran

1872

Life raft

Maria Beaseley

1882

Chocolate-chip cookies

Ruth Wakefield

1930

These are just some of the things that women have invented, read more on http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0906931.html



                                                             

                         Victoria Woodhall - First Woman Who Ran for President.

She was born in 1838 in Homer, Ohio - she became the first woman to run for becoming the 19th President. She was nominated as a third-party candidate who ran against the 18th President, Ulysses S. Grant. Females would not have the right to vote until 50 years later, she did not stop this getting in the way of her determination for change. We can see this in one of her quotes: "I and others of my sex find ourselves controlled by a form of government in the inauguration of which we had no voice."

With this historic act, she allowed many other females to run for President for America with some becoming closer to gaining the title than others. Many can include Hillary Clinton, Belva Ann Lockwood and more. Woodhall's act not allowed women to also have the courage and ability to run for president but also different vectors amongst politics. Margret Chase Smith represented Maine for 36 years in Congress, Lenora Fulani who ran for president in 1988 and 1992 and many others who were affiliated with politics.
We can still see the effects this stand has made in the 21st century as we have powerful females leading nations such as Former Priminister Margaret Thatcher and current Priminster Theresa May, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo - President of the Phillipeans.

This has helped the views of many as more females are becoming more open about the jobs they are getting into. Many have come as Housewives and turned into businesswomen and CEO's of major corporations all through the inspiration of Woodhall. Her stand was seen as iconic and she was viewed highly amongst the suffragettes

Sources:

http://www.women-inventors.com/Mary-Anderson.asp
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rebecca-bohanan/12-women-who-ran-for-pres_b_11172668.html
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/jul/20/notorious-victoria-first-woman-run-for-us-president
https://www.nwhm.org/education-resources/resources/women-who-have-run-for-president
http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0906931.html

Spies in civil war and Sacajawea

Spies in civil war

During the American civil war, women were used as spies as they were seen as innocent and non-threatening. During the war the women spies would stay on their home farm or in a military camp and then report on information they collected from being around the military men. This could have helped American women as they were trusted with carrying out the task of giving information. Slowly both sides of the war realised the value of the women operatives. The harsh conditions they had to endure to only increased with higher suspicion on the spies, meaning that it became harder for them to obtain information. 

Sacajawea 

Sacajawea was a Native American women who helped Lewis and Clark on their discovery expedition in 1805-06. She helped on the expedition with navigation, communications, as she spoke two different languages, and helped when they encountered native Americans and helped settle disputes that could of occurred otherwise. This helped women, especially the native American woman, as she demonstrated that the native American woman and all women in general can be intelligent and defied the stigma against women just being seen as pretty and as a housewife. 

Sources;

https://www.nwhm.org/online-exhibits/spies/8.htm 

http://www.history.com/topics/native-american-history/sacagawea 

Influential Events/Figures in Women's U.S. History

Marilyn Monroe:

Marilyn Monroe was arguably one of the most famous women of the 20th Century, and certainly the most famous in the entertainment industry. In the relatively short span of fifteen years, Monroe was a part of thirty films, before dying due to mysterious circumstances. She was an icon of the film industry, arguably proving that women could be just as big stars on the silver screen as men could, making half of the films that John Wayne was a part of in a much shorter time frame. Monroe would also be named the 'World Film Favourite' at the 1962 Golden Globe Awards, cementing her status as an icon of the industry. As well as proving further that women could easily do what men could do, Marilyn Monroe also defied the stereotypical image of a Hollywood woman; where most of her compatriots were thin to the point of anorexia and layered in makeup, Monroe was curvaceous and did little in the way of makeup, showing that women could defy the stereotype and still be beautiful. Marilyn has even been cited numerous times as one of the most beautiful women in history, an outstanding legacy to have.

   Female Representation in Politics:

Despite women gaining the right to vote with the 19th Amendment, they still had virtually no presence in national politics. Most women arguably relied on the First Lady of whichever President it was at the time to make their voices and concerns heard in Congress. However, during the 20th Century, this gradually changed. Eleanor Roosevelt, wife and First Lady to Franklin Delano Roosevelt, became a seasoned politician during her tenure, often touring the slums of American cities to try and figure out how to improve them, and she was also the director of the Bureau of Women's Activities in the Democratic Party, cementing herself as one of the most powerful women in national politics. Eleanor Roosevelt arguably kick-started the trend of First Ladies being as powerful as the men they were married too, with such examples as Jackie Kennedy, who brought grace and humility to the role of First Lady, Hillary Clinton, who was an advocate of a free national healthcare system during the presidency of her husband Bill Clinton, and especially Michelle Obama, who was a champion of women's rights, black rights and children's rights during her time as the first black First Lady in history.


Sources
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3712.html
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1590.html

19th Amendment and Women and Sport

19th Amendment

The 19th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified August 18th 1920 and was responsible for giving women the right to vote. The amendment itself states 'The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.' This meant that both states and the federal government could not stop people from voting because of their gender. This was common throughout US history as women were not viewed as equal and worthy of the vote due to a perceived lack of education or understanding of politics.

This was a key moment in women's history s it gave women equal political stature to men for the first time in federal law. It meant that women had a proper voice in politics now and were not being restricted based on gender. The amendment came after 72 years of hard work, the movement for women's rights began on a national level in 1848. This was with the Seneca Falls Convention organised by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Following the convention, suffrage became a cornerstone of the movement as a key goal to work towards. Women's rights activists such as Stanton, Mott and Susan B. Anthony worked and campaigned hard to earn the vote for women as well as helping to establish several women's rights groups.

However, while the 19th Amendment is often viewed as the most significant event in the advancement of women's rights, it did not have an immediate positive impact for all women. It did not mean that all women could now vote. For example, African American women could not vote as they were often stopped based on skin colour as opposed to gender. This suggests that its immediate impact only really was positive for white women. However, following the civil rights movement, it meant hat all women could vote and many took this opportunity. It paved the way for political equality for women, allowing them to have a say and influence politics directly.

Women and Sport

Women have been involved in organised sport in the US since the late 19th century. A key early invention was the bicycle. It was argued that the bicycle symbolised the quintessential 'New Woman' in the late 19th century which were self-reliant, athletic, strong and looking for a marriage based on equality. This activity led to organised sport for women which began really at the collegiate level with a number of Eastern women's universities offering sports programmes. The first intercollegiate women's basketball game took place between the University of California and Stanford on April 4 1896.

However, it was not easy for women to participate and numbers were low, it was still opposed by many who argued that sport was unfeminine. This became the prominent view throughout the 1930s around the great depression when ideas of the 'woman's role' were strong. Participation in sport did not completely stop for women and sport carried on. Up until this time sport had been limited to elite white women but the creation of business amateur leagues gave working class women the opportunity to participate in sport. These leagues were taken very seriously and businesses wanted their teams to do well. Dallas based Employers Casualty Company hired Mildred 'Babe' Didrickson as a clerical worker in 1930 essentially so that she could play for the companies basketball team which she led to a national championship.

In terms of African American women, they had more opportunities to compete in sport, particularly at the collegiate level. In 1939, only 25% of African American universities objected to intercollegiate sport for women as opposed to 83% of predominantly white universities. This led to greater opportunities in sport for African American women but they would not compete against white universities.

In 1972, congress enacted Title IX of the Education Amendments. This prohibits sex discrimination in education and programmes that receive federal funding. This meant that women could no longer be denied access to sport in high school based on gender. This increased greatly the opportunities that women had in playing sport at all levels. According to a University of Michigan study, Title IX resulted in a 20% increase in female attainment of education, 10% increase in number of women working full time and a 12% spike in the number of women male dominated fields. Leading to Nancy Hogshead-Makar's quote, 'other than women's suffrage, possibly no other piece of legislation has had a greater effect on women's lives than Title IX.'

Today, women in sport are still making progress. This can be seen through Shannon Szabados, a female ice hockey player who has been the first female player to take part in a number of leagues and tournaments.

Sources

https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxix
http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/19th-amendment
https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/exhibit/game-changers/gRJ3eKVt

Amelia Earhart and 'Hidden Figures'

Amelia Earhart:

Born in Kansas, in 1897, Amelia Earhart was only the 16th woman to be issued with a pilot's licence and the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean, in 1932. She was a popular figure until her disappearance in 1937, while on a flight.
As Candice Fleming mentions in her account of Earhart's life and disappearance, 'Amelia Lost: The Life and Disappearance of Amelia Earhart', Amelia Earhart was a celebrity up until her disappearance in 1937, with an image to maintain. During the 1920s and 1930s, the only prominent female celebrities tended to be actresses or singers. What made Earhart unique, was that she rose to fame in an 'unfeminine' occupation usually dominated by men. In addition, her celebrity status, meant that unlike many women at the time, she had a distinct image and expectation to maintain, meaning she also had something valuable to lose, should she fail to do so. This is important in the  improvement of women's status in the U.S., because Earhart hadn't simply settled down into the profitless role of a wife, mother or 'angel of the house'. Earhart followed her passion, rather than conforming to what was expected of women. This is a crucial factor as to why she has been idolised by so many women throughout many women's rights movements, as she inspired women to try and become whatever they wanted, just like she had done.
Earhart's life growing up is also something that can be viewed as somewhat inspirational as well. She spent a lot of her youth without a strong male figure, as her father was an alcoholic, who never managed to maintain sobriety so he could provide for his family. This may have been a key factor as to why Earhart did succeed, as she didn't have a man telling her she couldn't do what she wanted to do with her life.
Overall Amelia Earhart was an inspirational figure in the improvement of women's status in the U.S. and remains to this day, important in the development of tolerance towards women in male dominated work places.

'Hidden Figures':

'Hidden Figures' is a 2016 biographical/drama film, focusing on three female African American mathematicians who worked for NASA. Set in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the events of 'Hidden Figures' largely surround Alan Shepard's 1961 spaceflight, which was the first time the USA had successfully put a man in space. Each of the mathematicians, Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan and Mary Jackson, played their own important part in this event in American history and in the progression of African American women's rights in NASA. 

From the start of the film, the audience is made aware of the obvious racial prejudices that there were at the time towards African Americans. An early scene in the film depicts a police officer pulling up next to the mathematicians' car and needing to thoroughly check their identification when they revealed they, three African American women, worked for NASA, which at the time was seen as a pioneering organisation that represented the future of America. There are constant other racial references in the film, especially regarding segregation. However, despite race being a topic in the film, gender is also very relevant. 

Dorothy Vaughan often has an awkward relationship with Kirten Dunst's fictional character, Vivian Mitchell, a white woman, who is supposed to represent the common feelings of most white women towards the African American department at NASA in this period. She occupies a higher role than Dorothy and whenever Dorothy needs something, she has to speak to Vivian. It is this relationship that highlights the hardship faced by women at this time. Vivian repeatedly denies Dorothy almost all of her requests throughout the film, despite not displaying any true discriminatory feelings. This highlights that fact that although she is in a better position than most of the African American employees, she does not have a large amount of influence in NASA, which of course was dominated by men in the most important positions.

One of the most progressive elements to this film and the historical event, is to do with Katherine Johnson. In 1956, Johnson's husband died of a brain tumour, leaving her and her three children and elderly mother to survive by themselves. This would have been difficult for a white woman at this time, so for a black woman to be able to maintain a job, while taking care of her family, is an enormous achievement. She remarried in 1959, but the film takes a lot of time to portray her life in the aftermath of her husband's death, and she is depicted as a strong independent woman, who would have been an inspiration to those around her, as would her two colleagues, Vaughan and Jackson. 

Lastly, it is important to note that this film was a critical and box office success, highlighting the contrast with the era in which the film was set and today's society. According to IMDB, the film had a budget of $25 million dollars and as of 24th March, 2017, had grossed $167,046,872 in the U.S. alone. In addition, out of over 66,000 reviews, IMDB had given the film a 7.9/10 rating, which suggests generally favourable reviews. 'Hidden Figures' score on Rotten Tomatoes also implies that critics and the public enjoyed the film with 93% of critics writing positive reviews for it, out of 228 reviews. It also has a 93% 'liked it' score from over 48,000 reviews from the public. The point here, is that there is obviously a lot of contemporary support for this film and the story it tells. Personally, I had not heard of these women, and their roles in the space race. Furthermore, when researching this as a topic to discuss, a lot of the material available, had only been published in more recent years, suggesting they truly were 'Hidden Figures' and this film was really needed to inform people of their important role in American history and the improvement of the status of women, as well as African Americans.

References:

http://www.biography.com/people/amelia-earhart-9283280
Fleming, C., Amelia Lost: The Life and Disappearance of Amelia Earhart, (New York, 2011).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_official_poster_for_the_film_Hidden_Figures,_2016.jpg
https://www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4846340/
https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/hidden_figures/

Two aspects that helped the position of American women.

The Right to Vote (1920)

One of the most monumental gains that improved the status of American women, was the campaigning of and gaining the right to vote. The right to vote is fundamental to any American. From the roots of American democracy, it was campaigned that it was their Constitutional right.

In context, the first gathering for the campaign for women’s rights was 19^th-20^th July 1848, Seneca Falls, New York. Around 100 people attended this small gathering. What was important about this was how Elizabeth Cady Stanton, an ordinary American mother, had drafted the “Declaration of Sentiments, Grievances and Resolutions”. Within this, she  highlighted the original Constitution, and the line of “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal”. From this, we can identify how the movement gained a lot of their foundations from the American Constitution, to help their cause.

The suffrage movement progressed from this meeting. Stanton and Susan B. Anthony created the National Women’s Suffrage Association (NWSA) aimed at changing Federal Law and opposing the 15^th Amendment; which was not inclusive for women. This was an Association that remained at the forefront of the suffrage movement, alongside the American Women’s Suffrage Association (AWSA).

From the 1880-90s there was a turning point and a surge of ‘volunteerism’. The movement began to gain more supporters and caught the attention from trade unionists, Christian unions and National Leagues.

After further struggle that followed through the 19^th and 20^th Centuries, the women’s right to vote was granted in 1920. This was a huge improvement for the political status of women. This is because they had a permanent place in society, where they could voice their political opinions outside of the household.

Marital Rape Law

A further aspect that helped improve the socio-political position of women, was the changes within marital rights in the late 20^th Century. Prior to 1993, it was not a crime if you were raped within a marriage. This was to protect women who were victims of domestic violence. In 1993, this was identified in at least 1 section of the sexual offences codes in all 50 states.

However, what proved controversial about this improvement was how some states later edited it. By 1996, about 16 states had completely repealed, and a further 33 states had partially repealed it.

Therefore, while this was an improvement in the social position of women, and gave them the legislation to take a legal stand against this form of domestic violence; it did face backlash and changes later.

Sources:

http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/WIC/Historical-Essays/No-Lady/Womens-Rights/

http://www.marieclaire.com/politics/news/a10569/things-women-couldnt-do-1920/

https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=201457

The legacy of Black Power Visual Culture in 1990s Hip Hop

I chose this article as I was intrigued by the posts we did last week, and I wanted to learn more about how African Americans influenced music, about black power and how this affects the representation of African Americans today. 

This article focuses on hip-hop music from the 1990s, highlighting the treatment of African Americans at the time. It goes into detail how 1990s African American hip-hop artists went into detail about political issues such as police brutality, racism, and many other difficulties African Americans had to face. I found this to be interesting as music is a great way to get a message across, especially if a song gets popular, it is heard by the masses and so is an interesting way of getting political issues across, which is what many of the 1990s hip-hop artist have done. An example used in the article was N.W.A's 'fuck the police', showing quite how obvious they were being about the political happening of African Americans. Of course, hip-hop is seen as violent and explicit due to it's harsh words and style, which just adds to the awful stereotype against African Americans. 

The article then goes onto the use of black power used in this style of music music. it shows different covers to albums or songs that show black power and black panther symbolism from the 1960s. There's is an example of Boogie Down Productions (BDP) cover for their second album being influenced by a Malcom X political poster, 'by any means necessary'. This shows how far American American went to promoting black power, and bringing back the black panther power from the 1960s through the use of 1990s hip hop. Many hip hop artists of the 1990s promote the use of self defence, and the use of BDP's album cover shows this. The article then goes on to talk about Public Enemy, who in videos used the berets, gloves and jackets similar to that the black panthers used to wear, bringing the idea of black power to the forefront, and updating the image of black panthers and black power and that they can be heard.

article:j
http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-legacy-of-black-power-visual-culture-in-1990s-hip-hop/

MEDIA COVERAGE AND THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION

This piece by Alfred Cardone talks about the way Americans receive media and how the Presidential Election had been covered.  Cardone explains just how the election and outcome had affected the American populaces. With the Internet - there are different ways that people can view media such as blogs or on YouTube. Both of these and many more other media platforms allow people to speak their minds about concerns they have. The concerns that the people have with their President allow them to find sources and forms which allow them to come together for support. However, those who are for President Trump are also able to find comfort in media outlets that allow them to feel safe from the hostility of their views from the opposing party. 

Cardone talks about the context in which different media platforms are being perceived fully as he also speaks about the way Alternative media is challenging the more traditional outlets that are controlled by corporate sources. In today's society, Americans are gathering more information from sources that self-funded or from memberships. This could be due to the effect that technology plays in society and what it can offer. Cardone talks about Chomsky and Hermann's: Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media  Which talks about the way different corporates have power which helps form public opinion. Cardone states in this article that it can be seen in a way that makes their argument seem out of date as since then, the corporate has no longer got full control over the flow of information that is being released. The 2016 election has shown that diversity may not always follow through with accuracy but as Americans are picking which media outlets they want to rely on many are wondering if they're being indulged in something for 'greater viewing and funding'

Cardone follows on to talk about the Election and how the different parties responded to the way the news was being covered. 
Trump's statement was "The press has become so dishonest that if we don’t talk about it, we are doing a tremendous disservice to the American People" However, instead of questioning 'the press' his administration seemed to be doing the same thing from a different point of view.
Trump also goes on to state that 'the leaks are real' but 'the news is fake' set a guide to be considered in subsequent similar circumstances, it makes it hard for Americans to understand what really is 'fake news' around them. The idea of it being fake news can be used as a way to see just how much corporates have lost the flow of information that is being released, even in regards to Trump's 'Leaks are real' which was targeted towards Hilary Clinton proved that media outlets can prove to be destructive. 
With the election, we saw disinformation spread in regards to the protests at the Democratic Nevada Convention with many of Hillary Clinton's surrogates stating that many of Bernie supporters had turned violent. This was indeed false news and this was used in an attempt to sabotage Bernie Sanders campaign.

I believe that this was important as well as interesting due to the approach Cardone had on this angle. The idea of 'Fake News' put into perspective if media platforms are giving out facts and true information instead of false statements which can be seen through the different candidate parties. 


Sources: 
http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/media-coverage-and-the-presidential-election-of-2016-introducing-the-series/
http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/03/20/trump-russia-story-is-fake-news-and-everyone-knows-it.html

‘The Forgotten LGBT Pioneers’

‘The Forgotten LGBT Pioneers of 1956’

By Simon Hall

This article focusses on the hidden underlying work of people who tried to ‘integrate homosexuals into society’. This work focusses heavily on the monthly magazine ‘The Ladder’, the ‘official’ monthly magazine of the ‘Daughters of Bilitis’ organisation. The Daughters of Bilitis were the first lesbian rights organisation in America.

Within the article, the Daughters of Bilitis were suggested to have been a positive influence in American society. They aimed to “educate the public and challenge ‘erroneous conceptions, taboos and prejudices’ about homosexuality”.[1] They were not particularly radical, as they reflected on how their behaviour could help integrate them into society. They heavily focussed on “middle class respectability and integration”.[2] Therefore, when they released their magazine the Ladder, it appeared particularly risky at the time.

The first edition of the magazine included features such as ‘What Are You Afraid Of?’ and the ‘President’s message’.[3] These included a debate on lesbian’s fears, as well as encouraging homosexuals so have the same determination as seen in other female pioneers.[4]

This article is an important piece of work, primarily because of the topic that it surrounds. It can sometimes be seen that the early history of the struggle for homosexual rights, has almost been forgotten. As early as 1924, early initiatives included pamphlets including ‘Friendship and Freedom’ by Henry Gerber, Chicago.[5] In addition, the firs gay rights organisation was founded in 1950 by activist Harry Hay.[6] This was set up to “eliminate discrimination, derision, prejudice and bigotry”.[7] Moreover, within America, homosexuals have faced a lot of discrimination in their own history. For example, President Eisenhower had signed the executive order in 1950, ‘banning homosexuals from working for the federal government’.[8] 

Today, the LGBT community and their campaigning for equal rights is widely known. From this, there has emerged charities such as the LGBT Foundation. Advocating for the equal rights and opportunities for Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals and Transgenders, this is an inclusive charity that seeks to ensure that the voices of the LGBT community are heard and that their needs are met.

Therefore, it is understandable as to why both this article and the LGBT movement are so important. In recent history, we have seen some of the biggest milestones, such as the equal marriage in the United States. However, we have also witnessed some of the biggest tragedies surrounding the LGBT community, such as the Orlando shooting. LGBT rights is still an ongoing movement globally, and their influence is so widely spread both within America and the world.

Sources:

https://lgbt.foundation/about/

http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

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[1] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[2] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[3] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[4] http://www.baas.ac.uk/usso/the-forgotten-lgbt-pioneers-of-1956/

[5] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

[6] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

[7] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/

[8] http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/timeline/stonewall/